Salt marsh

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Definition of Salt marsh:
An intertidal coastal wetland influenced largely by marine tidal cycles and characterized by salt-tolerant vegetation.[1]
This is the common definition for Salt marsh, other definitions can be discussed in the article

Further specifications:

  • Salt marshes are key transitional habitats between land and sea, periodically flooded by tidal water.
  • They usually occur in sheltered coastal systems where fine sediment can settle.
  • Vegetation is dominated by grasses and other low-growing halophytes rather than trees.
  • Water saturation is the dominant factor shaping soils, plants, and animals.
  • Salt marshes are drained by naturally formed tidal creeks.
  • Salt marshes are sometimes referred to as schorre or kwelder.
  • They can be regarded as the ecological counterpart of mangroves in temperate and arctic regions.


Distribution

Saltmarshes are widespread in estuarine systems throughout the temperate world. Although local plant diversity is often low, global diversity is high, with more than 500 saltmarsh plant species known[2]. Salt marshes are uncommon on exposed coasts, where strong wave action inhibits their development. Although sediment supply is usually a prerequisite for marsh expansion, saltmarsh communities can also develop where sediment supply is limited or absent, for example on seawater-drenched cliffs and slopes, at the heads of sea lochs, and on rocky beaches[3].

The most extensive saltmarshes occur in estuaries with a moderate climate, large tidal range, abundant fine-grained sediment, and sheltered conditions that allow suspended particles to settle. Globally, saltmarshes are most extensive along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America, the Atlantic coasts of Europe, the Mediterranean, Australia, and eastern Asia. Chapman (1960[4], 1977 a[5], b [6]) describes nine different geographical salt marsh regions throughout the world.


Global distribution of saltmarshes. From Mcowen et al. 2017[7]. Creative Commons Licence https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/

Saltmarsh evolution

Saltmarshes evolve over time from young marshes to mature marshes. As the marsh surface builds above high-water level, high-marsh species invade, outcompete, and replace low-marsh plants. The most stress-tolerant species occupy the lower reaches of the marsh, while less specialized competitive species dominate higher elevations that are less stressful[2].

Deposition of fine sand and mud raises the marsh to the highest tidal water levels. The marsh may then become dry land that is only weakly connected to marine influence[8]. A cliff develops at the seaward edge of old marshes. Little water flows through the tidal channels of these high marshes. Lateral channel migration and wave attack at the base of marsh cliffs are the main mechanisms for erosion of mature saltmarshes and their subsequent rejuvenation cycle[9][10]; see Tidal channel meandering and marsh erosion.

Requirements for development

The requirements for development of saltmarshes are:

  • A supply of fine-grained sediment.
  • Shelter from strong wave action.
  • Saline or brackish, but not hypersaline, conditions.
  • A temperate or cool climate; incidental freezing temperatures do not damage the plants.
  • A tidal range sufficient to limit erosion, allow sediment deposition, and create clear zonation.

Saltmarsh zonation

Zonation of saltmarshes. Image credit: USGS

Based on topography and characteristic plant assemblages, saltmarshes are classified as low, middle, and high marshes. This classification is related to the number of tidal inundations per year[11].

The young, low marsh is regularly inundated by salt water and its vegetation is restricted to pioneer genera such as Salicornia, Suaeda, Aster, and Spartina. The middle marsh is typically situated between mean and spring high-tide levels. The low and middle marshes are drained by tidal creeks that convey flood and ebb flow; ebb flow generally dominates because flood water also inundates the marsh directly from the main channels. When the rising tide exceeds creek capacity, overspilling water deposits the coarser fraction of the sediment load near channel margins, leading to the development of creek levees[12].

In warm climates and where drainage is poor, evaporation can increase salinity in the middle marsh[13]. These more saline middle marshes are vegetated by highly salt-tolerant flora, and salt accumulation can lead to the formation of bare areas known as salt pans.

The high marsh extends from the mean spring high-water level to the highest spring-tide level. Flooded only by the highest tides and during storms, it is more terrestrial than marine in character. In coastal areas with sufficient freshwater infiltration, rainfall, and high groundwater levels, salinity decreases from the middle to the upper saltmarsh, where a floristically diverse wetland vegetation can develop[14].

Typical high-marsh species are cordgrass Spartina patens, spike grass Distichlis spicata, and species such as saltwort Salsola and seablite Suaeda. To establish successfully, annual species depend on yearly seed recruitment. Perennial species likewise benefit from seed establishment when colonizing new areas. Favourable germination conditions include a minimum bed level, where disturbance by waves and currents is low, and reduced soil salinity, for example after precipitation[15].

Spartina patens Credit T. Forney www.pest.ceris.purdue.edu
Spartina alterniflora Credit Janet Wright Creative Commons Licence
Salsola kali Credit Ed Stikvoort www.freenatureimages.eu
Suaeda maritima Credit Ed Stikvoort www.freenatureimages.eu

Succession

Succession is the successive development of different vegetation types over time at one place. In salt marshes, however, succession is not always a simple linear process, but often occurs as a dynamic and spatially variable mosaic influenced by disturbance and environmental change. It is a complex process; the factors determining zonation and succession in saltmarshes are discussed in more detail by Adam (1990[11], pp. 49-57), Gray (1992[16]), and Packham & Willis (1997, pp. 107-114[17]).

Biofilm of unicellular algae[18]
Fixation of the sediment by blue-green and green algae[18]

Mudflat colonization often starts with unicellular algae such as diatoms, which bind the sediment together by producing mucus. This creates a brownish biofilm on the substrate and contributes to initial sediment stabilization.

After this stage, filamentous algae, including blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) and Chlorophyta, may further stabilize the sediment. Small gastropods can graze on them and sometimes develop in large numbers. Locally, filamentous algae such as Vaucheria can form elevated patches. Brown algae may also occur in this stage.

A subsequent stage may include the germination of pioneer halophytes such as glasswort (Salicornia spp.). Seeds often germinate after partial desalination of the soil by rain. Sediment accumulation between and around these plants helps elevate and stabilize the substrate. In some regions, species of cordgrass (e.g., Spartina spp. ) may also colonize early and can act as important sediment stabilizers. The role and timing of Spartina colonization vary geographically; for example, in eastern North America, Spartina alterniflora often dominates the low marsh from an early stage, whereas in Europe species such as Spartina maritima and the introduced ''Spartina anglica may compete with other pioneer species. Hybridization and invasion by Spartina spp. is a widespread phenomenon.[19].

Salicornia europaea Credit Bart Vastenhouw, www.freenatureimages.eu
Spartina maritima Credit Ed Stikvoort www.freenatureimages.eu
Spartina anglica Credit Ed Stikvoort www.freenatureimages.eu

Initial plant colonizers play an important role in the recovery of saltmarsh vegetation after disturbance. They shade bare substrate, reduce salt accumulation in the soil, and thereby facilitate colonization by other plant species[2]. At the same time, physical factors such as tidal inundation, sediment supply, and elevation strongly influence which species can establish and persist.

Saltmarsh vegetation

In Europe, a typical vegetation pattern includes a pioneer zone with sparse cover of Spartina anglica and Salicornia dolichostachya/fragilis. Landward, Puccinellia maritima appears as small clones, followed by a middle marsh with greater vegetation cover and diversity. Aster tripolium, Cochlearia danica, Salicornia ramosissima, Suaeda maritima, Halimione portulacoides, Plantago maritima, Limonium vulgare, Bostrychia scorpiodes, and Atriplex portulacoides may occur in this zone, whereas Festuca rubra, Juncus gerardii, and Elymus athericus are common dominants in the upper marsh. Invasion by Elymus is facilitated by nitrogen enrichment.

Puccinellia maritima Credit Peter Meininger www.freenatureimages.eu
Plantago maritima Credit Jeroen Willemsen www.freenatureimages.eu
Triglochin maritima Credit Hans Boll www.freenatureimages.eu
Aster tripolium Credit Jan van der Straaten www.freenatureimages.eu
Cochlearia danica Credit Ed Stikvoort www.freenatureimages.eu
Limonium vulgare Credit Rutger Barendse www.freenatureimages.eu
Halimione portulacoides Credit Jan van der Straaten www.freenatureimages.eu
Bostrychia scorpiodes Credit Andre Rio. www.Marevita.org

In southern Europe, typical saltmarsh communities include species such as Sarcocornia fruticosa and Arthrocnemum macrostachyum in the low marsh, Limonium virgatum, Limonium girardianum, Frankenia pulverulenta, and Artemisia galla in the middle marsh, and Juncus spp. and other low shrubby species in the high marsh[14].

In eastern North America, dense tall stands of Spartina alterniflora grow in the lower intertidal zone, whereas in Europe saltmarsh vegetation is typically confined to the upper intertidal zone. At higher elevations, marshes are dominated by Spartina patens. Larger marshes in the Gulf of Maine are more likely to contain waterlogged pans with forbs such as Agalinis maritima, Atriplex patula, Glaux maritima, Limonium nashii, Plantago maritima, Salicornia europaea, Suaeda linearis, and Triglochin maritima. South of Chesapeake Bay to northern Florida, Spartina alterniflora dominates extensive intertidal low marshes that cover most of the coastal marsh area. These marshes have undergone extensive dieback, characterized by premature browning. Spartina alterniflora has also invaded several estuaries and salt marshes along the Pacific coast of North America, where it has often hybridized with native species. Spartina foliosa is the only cordgrass species native to the Pacific coast of North America, from Humboldt Bay to Baja California[14].

Salt marsh vegetation is increasingly influenced by factors such as nutrient enrichment, invasive species (e.g., Phragmites australis), sea-level rise, and climate-driven range shifts. For example, in some regions of the southeastern United States, mangroves are expanding into areas formerly occupied by salt marsh vegetation.[20].

In China, endemic Scirpus mariqueter marsh vegetation has largely been replaced by Spartina alterniflora, which has also invaded originally bare mudflats and coastal wetlands with Phragmites australis and Suaeda salsa[21].

Monospecific stands of Spartina alterniflora also dominate coastal wetlands from southern Brazil to the coastal plain southward from the Río de la Plata Estuary. At higher elevations within this humid region, the middle saltmarsh is dominated by mixed and monospecific stands of the southern cordgrass Spartina densiflora[22].

Adaptations

Plants and animals living in the low and middle saltmarsh must cope with harsh physical stressors, including high salinity, heat, and low oxygen in waterlogged soils.

The saline environment causes water stress. Plants must take up water against osmotic pressure. To overcome this negative osmotic pressure, they generate negative hydrostatic pressure through transpiration. They often have thin, fleshy leaves and are sensitive to extra stress such as pollution. Anatomical adaptations include strong lignification, a well-developed epidermis, and succulent leaves and stems. Evaporation can be reduced by thin leaves with scale-like hairs. Physiologically, plants may accumulate salt in their tissues so that normal osmosis remains possible, while others possess salt gland cells on the leaf surface that excrete excess salt.

Mudflat and marsh of the Seine estuary. Photo credit: GIP Seine Aval. The marsh is covered with numerous ponds. Marsh pond formation is characteristic of waterlogged marshes with poor drainage, affecting soil biogeochemistry and implying toxicity to vegetation by high sulfide and ammonium concentrations. It is assumed that pond formation is related to root zone degradation that leads to erosion and collapse of otherwise cohesive marsh soils[23].

Saltmarsh plants must also cope with an anoxic environment. Plant tissues require oxygen for respiration, but gas diffusion between sediment particles occurs only in soils that are not waterlogged. Even when surface water is oxygen-saturated, oxygen concentrations in the soil remain low because diffusion is slow. Many saltmarsh plants can temporarily cope with this by transporting oxygen to their roots through aerenchyma, a straw-like vascular tissue. Roots are generally superficial because deeper sediments are strongly anoxic. They consist of perennial thick roots with a corky layer and no root hairs, while short-lived, thin, highly branched roots with many root hairs serve to fix the substrate and absorb nutrients.

Nitrogen limitation can also influence saltmarsh development, even where total nitrogen levels are high. This is because sulfide and sodium concentrations are often also high and interfere with nitrogen uptake by plants[2].

Saltmarsh plants do not tolerate permanent waterlogging. Such conditions occur in depressions of flat, poorly drained marshes, where marsh ponds form. These ponds contain stagnant anoxic water and are associated with peat collapse caused by microbial mineralization of organic matter[24].

Functions

Attenuating the impact of extreme storms on coastal protection structures is one of the most important functions of saltmarshes. Field measurements of wave attenuation under extreme conditions are rare, but experiments in large wave flumes and numerical simulations provide consistent estimates. For example, wave height may be reduced by about 0.5% per metre of saltmarsh width for a 1 m significant wave height at the marsh edge and 2 m water depth above the marsh platform[25][26]. A 100 m wide marsh in front of a sea dike can therefore reduce storm-wave height by about 50%. These studies also show that vegetated saltmarshes dissipate wave energy much more efficiently than bare tidal flats.

Soils with a high proportion of fine, soft sediments (clay and organic material) have low bearing capacity. Sea dikes built on such soils cannot easily be raised to great heights. In these cases, a saltmarsh in front of the dike can provide equivalent protection while relaxing design requirements[27]. However, restored saltmarshes may not always attenuate storm surges as effectively as natural marshes; restoration and construction therefore require good knowledge of natural marsh development[28]. A more complete introduction to the coastal protection function of saltmarshes is given in Nature-based shore protection.

Saltmarshes provide many other ecosystem services:

  • Coastline stabilization through efficient trapping of sediment.
  • Water-quality improvement by filtering water and retaining excess nutrients, toxic chemicals, and disease-causing organisms.
  • Regulation of water supply through groundwater recharge and discharge.
  • Habitat provision, including nursery grounds, feeding grounds, shelter, nesting areas, and spawning areas for many species. Commercial landings in the north-east Atlantic depend to a large extent on these habitats[29].
  • Carbon sequestration; see Blue carbon sequestration.

Fauna

Saltmarshes are home to many small mammals, fish, birds, insects, spiders, and marine invertebrates. Marine invertebrates larger than 0.5 mm, collectively called macrofauna, include burrowing crabs, polychaete worms, bivalves, mussels, gastropods, amphipods, isopods, and grass shrimps. They occupy a wide range of ecological niches and drive key ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling, sediment stabilization, and trophic interactions, directly influencing carbon sequestration, soil quality, and productivity[30].

Through bioturbation, macrofauna disturb and mix sediment layers, redistribute nutrients by transporting material from deeper sediment layers to the surface, enhance sediment aeration and water infiltration, improve soil structure, and promote the growth of salt-tolerant vegetation. They also accelerate nutrient recycling by breaking down organic matter and releasing nitrogen and phosphorus. Crab burrows create oxygenated microhabitats that foster nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria and enhance N2O production via ammonia oxidation and denitrification[31].

Although aerobic microbial mineralization and nutrient cycling can increase emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), bioturbation also stimulates plant growth and enhances carbon capture and storage in biomass and roots. Sediment mixing further facilitates the formation of soil aggregates that protect organic matter from rapid decomposition and help stabilize sediment carbon. Oxygenation of sediments also supports diverse microbial communities that transform organic matter into stable forms of soil organic carbon, promoting long-term carbon storage[30].

Larger crustaceans, such as the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) and the green crab (Carcinus maenas), play important roles as predators and use saltmarshes as feeding and nursery grounds. Small fishes such as sticklebacks, silversides, mummichogs, eels, and flounders link marsh and marine food webs as prey for birds and larger fish. Other fish, such as Gulf killifish, striped killifish, and striped blenny, also support marsh food webs by preying on small invertebrates and transferring energy to higher trophic levels. Saltmarshes are important breeding, feeding, and overwintering grounds for waterfowl, including ducks, herons, sharp-tailed sparrows, Eurasian oystercatchers, and reed buntings. In Saudi Arabia, saltmarshes are also grazing grounds for wild dromedaries.

Although local diversity is often low, the abundance of organisms in saltmarshes can be very high. Densities of fiddler crabs or snails may reach 100–400 individuals per square metre, sometimes exceeding 1000, and densities of a single species of non-insect invertebrate can exceed 50,000,000 individuals per square kilometre[2].

Because of their essential roles in nutrient cycling, sediment stabilization, and trophic interactions, macrofaunal communities are reliable indicators of restored marsh functionality and resilience. The presence of diverse and functionally important groups such as crabs, polychaetes, and bivalves often signals successful restoration of key ecosystem processes[32]. These species support marsh plant recovery and restore ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and habitat provision for higher trophic levels[30].

Freshwater tidal marshes have high biodiversity but harbour relatively few endemic species[33]. Typical organisms include boatmen, flies, mosquitoes, snails, molluscs, ducks, geese, muskrats, raccoons, mink, and other small mammals. Some species are seasonal visitors.

Eurasian oystercatcher. Photo credit M. Decleer
Water boatman. Photo credit E.S. Ross
European mink[34]

Threats

The total number and area of saltmarshes have been declining for many years. The main cause is embankment, which deprives the habitat of tidal inundation. This typically occurs where the soil level is sufficiently high and the area sufficiently large for enclosure. Saltmarsh is then often converted to other uses, especially intensive agriculture. Embankment also causes additional marsh loss under sea-level rise, because it prevents the marsh from migrating landward, a process known as coastal squeeze.

In south-east England and France, a special type of embanked saltmarsh persists as a semi-natural habitat. Once enclosed, the marsh still contains salt-water inlets, creeks, and other unaltered features. Low-intensity grazing or hay-making are often the only uses, and with traditional management such areas can develop into valuable wildlife habitat. The term Coastal grazing marsh (in France: prairie subhalophile) is used for this habitat type.

Climate change threatens saltmarshes in several ways[35]. Many marsh plants have limited tolerance to high temperatures. The high marsh is sensitive to intense drought, which increases salinity stress. Saltmarshes can keep pace with sea-level rise where sediment supply is abundant and continuous, especially under macrotidal conditions, but this capacity has limits. Sea-level rise also exacerbates marsh-cliff erosion through increased wave and current attack. Inundation and waterlogging inhibit vegetation growth. Primary production contributes organic matter that helps raise marsh elevation by up to a few mm/yr[36], but current sea-level rise is often faster.

Reclamation for harbour development and other infrastructure completely destroys the habitat and eliminates restoration opportunities. Areas outside reclaimed zones may still generate new marshes if sediment supply and colonization conditions remain favourable[37]. However, climate change and sea-level rise reduce opportunities for saltmarsh development, and coastal squeeze is affecting many areas, especially around the southern North Sea[38].

Other threats include:

  • Over-grazing, especially by farm animals, but also by wild geese, crabs, and snails.
  • Eutrophication by agricultural effluents, which can increase susceptibility to erosion by stimulating microbial decomposition of organic soil material[39].
  • Urbanization.
  • Recreation.
  • Coastal erosion.
  • Industrial pollution and wastewater discharge.
  • Altered hydrologic regimes.
  • Species invasions, especially of Spartina anglica and Elytrigia in eutrophic saltmarshes.

Case-study: Land van Saeftinghe[40]

The tidal area ‘Drowned Land of Saeftinghe’ (Verdronken Land van Saeftinghe) lies near the Belgian-Dutch border, a few kilometres downstream of Antwerp in the estuary of the Western Scheldt. It has been an official nature reserve since 1976. Because of this legal protection, permits are compulsory for interventions and strict access restrictions apply.

The area lies in the transition zone where the River Scheldt meets saline North Sea water. Before the storm surge of 1570, the land was a fertile polder. The area covers 3,484 hectares. Nearly 70% is vegetated by saltmarsh, while the remaining 30% consists of mud flats, sandbanks, and a network of channels. At each tide, brackish water floods a large part of the area. The vegetation is fully adapted to these conditions. The area is an important breeding, resting, and wintering site for large numbers of birds. Since 1996 it has been a special protected area for birds under the Birds Directive and is of international importance.

Land of Saeftinghe.
Western Scheldt estuary, with the Land of Saeftinghe in green.

In the past, several dikes were built to promote silting-up. The northern dike connects a number of hillocks (artificial earth mounds) with the dike. These structures are still recognizable and now serve as walking paths. The hillocks were formerly used by shepherds when the tide became too high.

The flora consists of approximately 50 wild plant species. Algae are not abundant in Saeftinghe because too little light penetrates the highly turbid water, which contains much organic matter and silt. Higher plants are therefore more important. Common species include pickleweed (Salicornia), English scurvy-grass (Cochlearia anglica), and common sea-lavender (Limonium vulgare).

Saltmarsh restoration guide

For information on the management and restoration of saltmarshes in the UK, see the DEFRA Saltmarsh management manual.

Related articles

Dynamics, threats and management of salt marshes
Spatial and temporal variability of salt marshes
Natural variability and change in coastal ecosystems#Salt marshes
Spatial and temporal scales in biogeomorphology#Coupling of mudflat to Saltmarsh
Biogeomorphology of coastal systems
Nature-based shore protection
Tidal channel meandering and marsh erosion
Shore protection vegetation

See also


References

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  28. ↑ Kiesel, J., Schuerch, M., Moller, I., Spencer, T. and Vafeidis, A. 2019. Attenuation of high water levels over restored saltmarshes can be limited. Insights from Freiston Shore, Lincolnshire, UK. Ecological Engineering 136: 89–100
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  37. ↑ Council of Europe – Dijkema, K.S. et al. 1984. Saltmarshes in Europe. Nature and environment series No. 30, p. 178
  38. ↑ Doody, J.P. 2004. Coastal squeeze - an historical perspective. Journal of Coastal Conservation 10: 129-138
  39. ↑ Fagherazzi, S., FitzGerald, D.M., Fulweiler, R.W., Hughes, Z., Wiberg, P.L., McGlathery, K.J., Morris, J.T., Tolhurst, T.J., Deegan, L.A., Johnson, D.S., Lesser, J.S. and Nelson, J.A. 2022. Ecogeomorphology of Saltmarshes. Ch. 8.14 of Treatise on Geomorphology (ed. Shroder, J.F.), Elsevier
  40. ↑ https://www.saeftinghe.eu/nl/


The main author of this article is TÖPKE, Katrien
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Citation: TÖPKE, Katrien (2026): Salt marsh. Available from http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Salt_marsh [accessed on 2-05-2026]


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