Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and ecosystem function

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It is generally assumed that biodiversity is essential for ecosystem function - the goods and services that ecosystems provide to humanity. Diversity of species and size of populations - the narrow definition of biodiversity - indirectly play a role. In fact, most goods and services arise through ecosystem functioning, the broader scope of biodiversity which encompasses the interplay of species and their interaction with the environment. Much research is focusing in recent decades on unraveling the relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and ecosystem function.

Many ecosystems around the world are currently undergoing profound changes in species composition due to the influence of human activity and climate change. These changes are likely to affect the services that ecosystems provide to humanity. Questions about the relationships between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and ecosystem function have therefore become urgent.[1][2][3][4]


Definition of Ecosystem functioning:
Ecosystem functioning describes the combined effects of all natural processes that sustain an ecosystem, i.e. the combined effects of individual functions, with the overall rate of functioning being governed by the interplay of abiotic (physical and chemical) and/or biotic factors[5].
This is the common definition for Ecosystem functioning, other definitions can be discussed in the article


Definition of Ecosystem function:
The capacity of natural processes and components to provide goods and services that satisfy human needs, either directly or indirectly[6].
This is the common definition for Ecosystem function, other definitions can be discussed in the article

The term 'Ecosystem function' is often used in ecology with a broader meaning, referring to processes, roles or services[7].


The relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and ecosystem function can be understood as a cascade of processes:


Biodiversity → Ecosystem functioning → Ecosystem function → Ecosystem services


Ecosystem function, functioning and biodiversity

Marine ecosystems provide many important functions at a global, national, regional and individual level. The goods and services provided to society include moderation of climate, processing of waste and toxicants, protection of the coastline, provision of vital food and medicines and a source of employment. Our coasts provide space to live and directly and indirectly create wealth, including millions of jobs in industries such as fishing, aquaculture and tourism. See also the article Ecosystem services.

Although a distinction is not always made, ecosystem function should be distinguished from ecosystem functioning. Ecosystem functioning refers to ecological processes and the causal relations that give rise to them, to the role of organisms within an ecological system, and to the overall processes that sustain an ecological system[8]. It reflects the collective life activities of plants, animals, and microbes and the effects these activities - feeding, growing, moving, excreting waste, etc. - have on the physical and chemical conditions of their environment[9]. Ecosystem functioning determines how energy and matter flow through ecosystems (e.g. primary production, decomposition, nutrient cycling). These processes give rise to ecosystem functions and ultimately to ecosystem services at multiple scales such as food production, climate regulation, waste processing and coastal protection, which benefit to humans as well as to other organisms[7]. Although the distinction between ecosystem function and ecosystem functioning is not always made consistently in the literature, the two concepts are complementary and closely linked[10].

There is broad consensus among scientists that ecosystem function is linked to biodiversity. Loss of biodiversity may result in degradation of ecosystem functioning and loss of ecosystem functions, although we still lack adequate theories to provide robust generalizations[11]. This is thought to be because diverse communities contain a greater range of functional traits and are therefore better adapted to naturally available resources. High diversity therefore provides opportunities for more efficient use of resources and ensures stability of ecosystem functions in variable or disturbed environments[12]. In contrast, systems with species-poor communities are often less resistant (less capacity to withstand change) and less resilient (less capacity to recover from disturbance) than systems with species-rich communities[13]. Biodiversity and ecosystem function are central to both community and ecosystems ecology and need to be understood to predict how communities and ecosystems respond to environmental change and how declining diversity influences ecosystem services on which humans depend[14]. However, the relationship between structural and functional aspects of biodiversity are not uniform and depend on environmental conditions, spatial scale, disturbance regime and the particular ecosystem functions considered (see also the article Resilience and resistance).


The article A review of biodiversity-ecosystem function research presents an overview of different types of experiments designed to provide insight into the biodiversity-ecosystem function relationship in the marine environment.

Empirical theories

Current understanding of the biodiversity-ecosystem function relationship is largely based on empirical rules derived from analysis of the observed behavior of natural ecosystems when disturbed or under stress. Rather than universal rules, a number of recurring patterns have been identified, some of which are listed below. [15][16][17][18][19][20]

  • Functional diversity is often a strong predictor of ecosystem functioning, because it captures variation in ecological roles and traits. However, its importance relative to species richness depends on context.
  • Across ecosystems, there is empirical evidence that the diversity at high trophic levels is most important for providing multiple ecosystem functions and services.
  • Functional redundancy, where multiple species perform similar ecological roles, can buffer ecosystem functioning against species loss, as some species can partially compensate for the loss of others. Stable and productive ecosystems are typically not pruned to the most productive and competitive species. However, compensation is often incomplete and may break down under multiple stressors.
  • Biodiversity effects tend to be stronger in heterogeneous environments, where niche differentiation can occur. The so-called niche complementarity theory postulates that coexisting species with a great variety of functional traits have different requirements for ecological niches which lead to more efficient utilization of available resources through niche differentiation and facilitation.
  • Positive biodiversity-ecosystem function relationships have been shown to be strongest in complex resource environments. Environmental heterogeneity promotes complementarity effects, suggesting that habitat homogenization may compromise positive biodiversity effects on ecosystem function.
  • Complementary species that differ in their use of resources or environmental conditions allow more complete exploitation of available resources. Facilitative interactions (e.g. habitat modification by one species benefiting another) can also enhance functioning.
  • Species identity and community composition can be as important as species richness for determining ecosystem functioning.
  • Species-rich ecosystems are more likely to include and become dominated by some highly productive species. This is called the selection probability hypothesis.
  • Some ecosystems are ruled by a small number of key species (also called keystone species or ecosystem engineers). The loss or gain of key species has a significant impact on the ecosystem function.
  • Competitive exclusion, where a strong competitor eliminates all weaker competitors with same functionality, is rare. Competitive exclusion leads to a decline in species diversity under certain conditions (e.g. low disturbance, homogeneous environments), but is often moderated by environmental variability, dispersal and species interactions.
  • The impact of the loss or gain of a species on ecosystem function is context dependent and often idiosyncratic and unpredictable. What happens, will depend on the local conditions under which the species extinction or addition occurs (see Disturbances, biodiversity changes and ecosystem stability)

Biodiversity is widely recognized as an important driver of ecosystem functioning and ecosystem services. However, the relationships involved are complex and context-dependent, reflecting the interplay of multiple mechanisms, environmental conditions and scales. Rather than universal laws, current understanding identifies general principles whose expression varies among ecosystems. Improving this understanding remains essential for predicting ecosystem responses to environmental change and for managing marine and coastal ecosystems sustainably[17][18][21]


Related articles

A review of biodiversity-ecosystem function research
Measurements of biodiversity
Disturbances, biodiversity changes and ecosystem stability
Biological Trait Analysis
Biodiversity
Resilience and resistance
Ecosystem services
Functional diversity in marine ecosystems
Functional groups


References

  1. ↑ Walker, B.H., 1992. Biodiversity and ecological redundancy. Conserv. Biol. 6: 18-23.
  2. ↑ Schulze, E.-D. and Mooney, H. A. (eds). 1993. Biodiversity and ecosystem function. Springer Verlag
  3. ↑ Jones, C. G., and Lawton, J. H. editors. 1995. Linking species and ecosystems. Chapman and Hall, New York, New York, USA
  4. ↑ Johnson, K.H., Vogt, K.A., Clark, H., Schmitz, O. and Vogt, D. 1996. Biodiversity and the productivity and stability of ecosystems. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 11: 372-377
  5. ↑ Reiss, J., Bridle, J.R., Montoya, J.M. and Woodward, G. 2009. Emerging horizons in biodiversity and ecosystem functioning research. Trends Ecol. Evol., 24: 505-514
  6. ↑ de Groot, R.S., Wilson, M.A. and Boumans, R.M.J. 2002. A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecological Economics 41: 393–408
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Bellwood, D.R., Streit, R.P., Brandl, S.J. and Tebbett, S.B. 2019. The meaning of the term ‘function’ in ecology: A coral reef perspective. Functional Ecology 33: 948–961
  8. ↑ Naeem, S. 1998. Species redundancy and ecosystem reliability. Conserv. Biol., 12: 39-45
  9. ↑ Naeem, S., Chapin III, F.S. Costanza, R., Ehrlich, P.R., Golley, F.B., Hooper, D.U., Lawton, J.H., O'Neill, R.V., Mooney, H.A., Sala, O.E., Symstad, A.J. and Tilman, D. 1999. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Maintaining Natural Life Support Processes. Issues in Ecology 4. Published by the Ecological Society of America
  10. ↑ Jax, K. 2005. Function and functioning in ecology: what does it mean? Oikos 3: 641-648
  11. ↑ Loreau, M. 1998. Separating sampling and other effects in biodiversity experiments. Oikos 82: 600–602
  12. ↑ Chapin, F.S., Walker, B.H., Hobbs, R.J., Hooper, D.U., Lawton, J.H., Sala, O.E. and Tilman D. 1997. Biotic control over the functioning of ecosystems. Science, 277(5325): 500-504
  13. ↑ Strong, J.A., Andonegi, E., Bizsel. K.C., Danovaro, R., Elliott, M., Franco, A., Garces, E., Little, S.,. Mazik, K., Moncheva, S., Papadopoulou, N., Patrício, J., Queiros, A.M., Smith, C., Stefanova, K. and Solaun, O. 2015. Marine biodiversity and ecosystem function relationships: The potential for practical monitoring applications. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 161: 46-64
  14. ↑ Duffy, J.E. 2003. Biodiversity loss, trophic skew and ecosystem functioning. Ecol. Lett. 6: 680–687
  15. ↑ Grime, J.P.,1973. Competitive exclusion in herbaceous vegetation. Nature 242, 344–347
  16. ↑ Naeem, S., Thompson, L.J., Lawler, S.P., Lawton, J.H. and Woodfin, R.M. 1994. Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of ecosystems. Nature 368: 734–737
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Inchausti, P., Bengtsson, J., Grime, J.P., Hector, A., Hooper, D.U., Huston, M.A., Raffaelli, D., Schmid, B., Tilman, D., Wardle, D.A., 2001. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: current knowledge and future challenges. Science 294: 804–808
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Tilman, D., Isbell, F., Cowles, J.M., 2014. Biodiversity and ecosystem function. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 45: 471–493
  19. ↑ Eisenhauer, N., Schielzeth, H., Barnes, A.D., Barry, K., Bonn, A., Brose, U., Bruelheide, H., Buchmann, N., Buscot, F., Ebeling, A., Ferlian, O., Freschet, G.T., Giling, D.P., Hättenschwiler, S., Hillebrand, H., Hines, J., Isbell, F., Koller-France, E., König-Ries, B., de Kroon, H., Meyer, S.T., Milcu, A., Müller, J., Nock, C.A., Petermann, J.S., Roscher, C., Scherber, C., Scherer-Lorenzen, M., Schmid, B., Schnitzer, S.A., Schuldt, A., Tscharntke, T., Türke, M., van Dam, N.M., van der Plas, F., Vogel, A., Wagg, C., Wardle, D.A., Weigelt, A., Weisser, W.W., Wirth, C. and Jochum, M. 2019. A multitrophic perspective on biodiversity-ecosystem functioning research. Adv Ecol Res. 19: 1-54
  20. ↑ Ali, A. 2023. Biodiversity–ecosystem functioning research: Brief history, major trends and perspectives. Biological Conservation 285, 110210
  21. ↑ Cardinale, B., Duffy, J., Gonzalez, A. et al. 2012. Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature 486: 59–67


The main authors of this article are Job Dronkers and Vassiliki, Markantonatou
Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.
Citation: Job Dronkers; Vassiliki, Markantonatou; (2026): Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and ecosystem function. Available from http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Biodiversity,_ecosystem_functioning_and_ecosystem_function [accessed on 16-04-2026]
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